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Both the oxygen and carbon atoms of the carbonyl group are sp2 hybridized and therefore lie in the same plane as the other two neighboring atoms of the carbon atom ; the bond angles at the C atom are about 120o :

In complicated structures, the term oxo is used to make clear the presence of a carbonyl group. Numerous substituents containing a carbonyl group have special names, e.g.:

The carbonyl group is strongly polarized, and consequently electrophiles attack the oxygen atom and nucleophiles attack the carbon atom. One of the most important reactions that aldehydes and ketones undergo is nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl group :

Here, each step is reversible. The entire reaction sequence from the carbonyl compound to the acetal is an equilibrium process. By manipulating the reaction conditions, the equilibrium can be shifted to the right or to the left:

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A cell that serves as a source of electric current is called a galvanic cell, voltaic cell, or galvanic element. Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta were the first to experiment with the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.

The visualization of the diffusion potential is achieved here by representing the ionic velocity by arrows of different lengths. Although anions and cations are subject to thermal molecular motion, they are shown in pairs for simplicity.

The combination of two half cells is also called a galvanic cell, galvanic chain or galvanic element. The cell voltage ?E (potential difference between the half cells) is also called EMF.

If the two half-cells are conductively connected, a current flows which results in an equalization of the concentrations. The cell voltage is calculated with the aid of the NERNST equation:

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Let's start with point before dash arithmetic. This rule says: calculate multiplication and division first and then addition or subtraction. Using an example, we will now show how to apply this rule (and how to do it wrong).

Go through the example from before again. Then follow a number of other examples. Look at each one carefully and try to follow the calculation. And again, multiplication or division first, then addition or subtraction.

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1. structure of Chlamydomonas (1) 2. structure of Chlamydomonas (2) 3. reproduction/propagation of Chlamydomonas algae 4. sexual reproduction/propagation of Chlamydomonas algae 5. structure and reproduction/propagation of Eudorina 6. structure of Volvox (1) 7. structure of Volvox (2) 8. Volvox - asexual reproduction/propagation 9. Volvox - sexual reproduction/propagation 10. structure and reproduction/propagation of sea lettuce alga 11. structure of maidenhair moss 12. reproduction/propagation of maidenhair moss (1) 13. reproduction/propagation of maidenhair moss (2) 14. structure of worm fern 15. reproduction/propagation of ferns (1) 16. reproduction/propagation of ferns (2)

1. the upper respiratory tract (1) 2. the upper respiratory tract (2) 3. the thorax 4. inhaling and exhaling 5. fine structure of the bronchi (1) 6. fine structure of the bronchi (2) 7. the breathing process (1) 8. the breathing process (2) 9. gas exchange 10. facts and figures about breathing (1) 11. facts and figures about breathing (2)